We develop a general, functional calculus approach to approximation of $C_0$-semigroups on Banach spaces by bounded completely monotone functions of their generators. The approach comprises most of well-known approximation formulas, yields optimal convergence rates, and sometimes even leads to sharp constants. In an important particular case when semigroups are holomorphic, we are able to significantly improve our results for general semigroups. Moreover, we present several second order approximation formulas with rates, which in such a general form appear in the literature for the first time. 查看全文>>